Introduction
“Toward A Philosophy of Christian Education”? “Why not,” some may ask, “call this paper The Philosophy of Christian Education. If there are many philosophies of Christian Education why not pick one or invent one and then defend it as the only correct view? How can you expect one to do Christian Education if they can not have a firm foundation upon which to build?” This introduction will attempt to address these questions.
The Problems
Ever since God instructed Adam in the Garden of Eden, there has been some form of what we today call “Christian Education.” Sometimes it has been effective, other times not. At times, people have thought about the philosophy and process of education. However, the teacher often does to the learner what was done to him by his teachers. Over time education drifts toward becoming increasingly teacher and content centered as opposed to learner and life centered. It is only with great effort that Christian Education (or education in general for that matter) is brought back to a learner and life centered orientation. Several cycles of this can easily be seen in history.
Eli’s sons following their father’s example in 1 Samuel are focused on themselves and not upon the people. The Mosaic Law was given as a very life and learner centered law that was to be taught as practical guidance in details of life as well as point them to God. However, the religious leaders in Jesus day were very self centered. They both taught and practiced very refined, technical law that brought glory to the teacher and demeaned the learner. Jesus’ teaching was quite the opposite. No wonder crowds would come to hear Him. This life and learner centered teaching continued in ministries of James, Peter and Paul. Unfortunately, more technical discussion soon prevailed and Christian education led the way into the Dark Ages.
A ray of hope began with the Reformation, but it was not long lived. Johann Amos Comenius, bishop of the Moravians, formulated a life and learner centered philosophy of education. Unfortunately his brave little flame was soon extinguished and formalism held sway.
In the middle of the 20th century Dr. Lois
LeBar, at
In our Bible colleges and seminaries, the scene is still bleak. Christian Education departments are often viewed as less “academically worthy” then are departments of theology, and biblical languages. Christian Education is generally envisioned as a study of how to keep children happy in Sunday School. It is often felt that Christian Education has nothing to say regarding post-secondary and especially seminary education. Even at Dallas Theological Seminary the Christian Education department has be jocularly referred to by some as the “Christian Entertainment” department.
The result of this is evidenced in our evangelical
churches. Solid Bible teaching churches are declining and giving way to
“charismatic” churches that care little for an accurate understanding of the
Bible and are centered on an emotional, and somehow more “relevant” philosophy
of ministry. There is an artificial gap between a clear and accurate
understanding of the doctrines of the Bible, and relevant to life,
learner/people centered ministry. This writer has had the distasteful chore of
helping to remove from the pastorate several
A detailed, documented study of the history and current status of Christian Education is beyond the scope of this paper. The attempt here is only to show that a problem exists today in the church. It has been common since the creation of man. There have been seasons of improvement, but they have been short lived. One could also show a similar pattern in secular education. However, the two do not move in lock step. Sometimes Christian Education leads secular education; sometimes it is the other way around.
It would seem that we could go to the biblical text or to the principles in nature and derive a philosophy of education that would stand the test of time. The methods used to express that philosophy, and the tools used to carry it out, might vary over time but the philosophy should still hold. We could then call that philosophy of education “The Philosophy of Education.” This writer is convinced that such a philosophy education does exist in mind of God and that we can come close to that ideal. Since the origins of such a statement would have its roots in God then it could be called the philosophy of Christian Education. However, since man is finite, no one can fully fathom the mind of God .The best that we can do is build an approach “Toward A Philosophy of Christian Education.”
Toward A Philosophy of Christian Education
Prolegomena
In this section, we will examine some concepts that are essential for a Christian worldview. It is evident that Christian Education must be based on and taught from a Christian worldview. It is not the purpose of this paper to defend these statements. That is the purview of apologetics.[1]
Properly Basic Beliefs (Metaphysics)
There are several properly basic beliefs[2] that we need to be aware of before we can begin. The first is that God exists. By God, I mean a singular ultimate being who is the original sole source and cause of all that exists. The scriptures assume the existence of God. Paul in Romans chapter one starting with verse eighteen, roots his argument for the universal depravity of all man, on the assertion that not only does God exists, but that He has revealed Himself to such an extent in His creation that all men can justly be accused of rebellion again God. Paul states that through creation man knows God’s invisible attributes, eternal power and divine nature.
Second, belief in one’s own existence is also properly basic; it can not be denied. A third properly basic belief is that there was a time before just now. There is a history that precedes this moment, and that this history is not an invention, but a reality. Another basic belief is that others exist. They are not a figment of the imagination. The same can be said for substances. Trees, houses, light, and heat exist they are not simply imagined. There is reality.
Epistemology
Truth is what corresponds to reality. Therefore truth is discovered and is neither constructed nor invented. Since God created all that is real then all truth is God’s truth. All discovery of truth is in some way a discovery about God. A Christian worldview absolutely denies that truth is relative.
The implication for Christian Education is that it can not truly use “constructivistic” educational methods. A learner can not construct truth. He may discover it on his own, but he can not “invent” it. The individual and learner group projects that are heavily used in constructivistic methodology can and should be used in discovery based education.
Revelation and Miracles
Revelation and the possibility of miracles are two facets of the same thing. It also has to do with the discussion of how God can be both transcendent (wholly outside our universe) and immanent (operative within our universe). Its foundation is the infinite nature of God compared to the finite nature of man. A simple analogy is to say that our universe is like a closed box. We can not see or physically penetrate beyond that box. God is out side that box and yet can at the same time work within and reveal Himself within that box.
This begs the question, “What is that box?” The answer to which is our three dimensional universe. We finite beings can only operate in three dimensions. God, being infinite, can operate in an infinite number of dimensions. Using this model, it can readily be shown how God can be present, active beside, and even within us and yet we can not perceive Him.[3] Mathematicians are actively working today with shapes that have more then three dimensions. A practical out come of this work has been the ability to plot the nectar locating dance pattern of the honeybee.
All of this is to say that it is quite reasonable for God to be generally outside our universe, in control of it and yet at the same time operate within our universe. Many of His actions in our universe will be supernatural to us. That is they will violate the laws of our three dimensional universe.
Axiology
Axiology deals with the basis for declaring something good or bad, or calling some action moral or immoral. It also asks the question, “Are there any absolute values or morals?” The Christian worldview holds that there are both absolute values and morals. However, it would not hold that all values and morals are absolute. The source of these absolutes is found in the character of God as revealed in both natural and special revelation. It is an over simplification to say that that which is good or moral is that which acknowledges and builds upon, in a positive manner, the what God has provided or established. And that which is bad, evil or immoral is that which destroys or denigrates what God had done, provided or established. However, these are adequate working definitions.
Anthropology
According to Genesis chapter two, man is created in the image of God. The Christian worldview takes this image to consist of mind, emotion, and will. We are not the physical image of God; we are the image of God in that we are persons, as He is a person. The implication of this is that we must treat all people (learners) as bearers of the image of God. Yet man rebelled against God, and this rebellion puts within all of us a rebellious nature. We must there treat all learners who some how rebel with humility knowing that we too are subject to sin (rebellion).
The Teacher in Christian Education
“A teacher must be one who know the lesson or truth or art to be taught.”[4] The teacher in Christian Education must also be a Christian, for how can one who is not himself being transformed into the image of Jesus help transform others into that image?
It is also imperative that the teacher understands the individual learners and the world in which they live. Education is best done in the idiom of the learner. A teacher who can not communicate clearly with the learner will fail as a teacher. This understanding of the learner also implies that the lesson to be taught must be somehow related to the needs, background and desires of the learner. A lesson that does not relate to life may be memorized by the pupil, but will not be learned by the learner.
The Learner in Christian Education
“A learner is one who attends with interest to the lesson.”[5] The learner must will to learn. If there is not attention to the lesson then the lesson will be lost. However, it is a mistake to think that some, especially young learners, are not attending the lesson while at the same time doing other things with their hands. One can knit and attend to a lesson. On can manipulate twigs and grass while still attending to a Bible lesson taught on the under the trees at camp.
Interest in the lesson can be sparked by any or a combination of several factors. First, the learner may, apparently all on his own, develop a keen interest in a topic. This interest may last a few moments or a lifetime. Second, some event external to the learner, the teacher and the immediate learning environment may make such an impact that the attention of the learner will be drawn to it. If possible the teacher should find a way to incorporate that event into the lesson at hand, or deal with the new topic for a while before returning to that which was interrupted. A third way that attention is gain is by the teacher doing or saying something that arouses interest in the learner. This is by far the hardest way to gain attention and the least likely to sustain that attention for a protracted period of time.
The clear implication is that the more that teaching can be centered in the life needs and experiences of the learner the easier they will grasp the lesson and the longer it will remain with them.
The Process of Teaching
“Teaching is arousing and using the pupil’s mind to grasp the desired thought or to master the desired art.”[6] It is always essential to start the lesson with where the learner is on that subject. It is all but impossible to arouse his interesting in something that he does not perceive as vitally related to his own life. From there one needs to proceed in steps that are small enough that the learner can follow them in turn without getting lost. At each step in the lesson have the learner relate how that step fits with the last and how that leads to the goal of the lesson. Also continually have the learner illustrate the lesson from his own experience. This is especially true with adult learners.
Process of Learning
“Learning is thinking into one’s own understanding a new idea or truth or working into a habit a new art or skill.”[7] Learning comes from thinking not by being told.[8] Cause the learner to start thinking by asking a question that will draw the learner into the subject you wish to present. When the learner is repeating the lesson back, do not become impatient with his seemly slow and complex reply. It is at this very point that the learner is making these new thoughts a part of his own noetic structure. As a rule, learning is occurring when the learners are asking questions that in some way relate to the lesson. One of the most important things you can teach is how to ask questions.
The implication here is that in Christian Education we must not discourage questions that seem to contradict the lesson. This is probably the learner’s innocent way to mastering the subject.
Place and Nature of Corrective or Punitive Discipline
A distinction needs to be made between developmental discipline and corrective or punitive discipline. Development discipline what is done with military recruits. They are put through all sorts of physical, social and emotional riggers, not because they have done wrong but to give them the skills they will need to both win battles and save their own lives. These are akin to the spiritual disciplines of servant-hood, and prayer and fasting. Developmental discipline is a necessary of good education, especially Christian Education. Jesus used this form of discipline with the disciples when put them through the physical riggers and fear of death in the storm only to teach them to rely on Him in every situation.
Punitive discipline is used to extract a penalty from a willful wrong doer for his wrongdoing. The typical forms of this discipline are fines (loss of possessions), confinement (loss of freedom), or bodily harm (loss of well being). These may also be used to bring a person or group to repentance. Examples of punitive discipline are the curses in Deuteronomy 28 for failure to abide by the covenant. This form of discipline prescribed in the Law and in the book of Proverbs for the home. It is the function of government to administer punitive discipline for adults.
Corrective discipline is similar to punitive discipline in that occurs after a wrongdoing but its purpose is not to extract a penalty but like development discipline it is to aid the person in developing proper attitudes and behavior. This is what is happen with Jonah and the vine. In education, this is the purpose of corrective comments about a learner’s work.
Christian Education will often be use developmental discipline. In Christian camping, a group of young men may be sent on a long canoe trip to help them learn cooperation, interdependence, as well as to gain physical strength and an appreciation of God’s works in creation. Punitive discipline should be left primarily to the home and government. However, teachers will provide corrective discipline when they grade student work, speak with them about their attitudes and behavior in the classroom. All of these things are done in such a way as not to expose the student to shame in front of his peers. It must always be done realizing that the person being corrected is a bearer of God’s image, and the administrator of the discipline is himself subject to the same or similar misdeeds. American business calls this type of discipline a “corrective interview.” This implies that its purpose is to restore the person to productivity and is done as a two-way conservation.
Nature of the curriculum
The nature of the curriculum in Christian Education will depend on the direct purpose of the education at that point in time. Any subject that presents truth and does not promote in anyway rebellion against God and His standards for man (primarily ethical or moral) is a valid subject for Christian Education.
In camp riflery and canoeing are as much a part of the Christian Education curriculum as is a session called Bible Exploration. The subject matter is different but the ultimate goal of bringing the camper into closer conformity to the character of Jesus remains the same. Teaching gambling, rape, or how to be a pickpocket would not be valid subjects in Christian Education.
Biblical and Theological Integration
A discussion what is valid subject matter in Christian Education begs the question as to how does a teacher show the relationship between God’s truth and desires for man, and subjects that are not directly biblical or theological. This is called integration. A longer name, “biblical of theological integration, can be used to distinguish it from racial, or cultural integration. It is also distinct from the integration other “secular” disciplines with each other. These other forms of integration are valid, but a treatment of them is beyond the purview of this paper.
The basis for integration is that since God is the ultimate source of all reality, and since truth is what corresponds to reality, then all that is true is has its source in God and therefore is of God.[9] This basis for integration is widely accepted in Christian Education circles. Its best expression can be found in Frank E. Gaebelein’s Griffith Thomas Memorial Lectures for 1952[10] at Dallas Theological Seminary, and his Bauman Memorial Lectures for 1962[11] at Grace College and Theological Seminary.
The practice of integration is probably the greatest weakness in “secular subject” Christian Education. The problem is not understanding the concept, or even agreeing with the concept. The problem is two fold. First, many teachers cannot find the integrating point. A Christian camp activity leader may not see how to integrate riflery, or swimming with spiritual things. A college professor may not see how to integrate mathematics with Christian living. All of these have numerous points of integration. For example the mathematics professor, when presenting solid geometric forms can show how they can help a missionary order the right amount of cement to complete a church or school. The professor could also use a unit on fractal geometry as a place to remark about God’s complex order in what appears to man to be utter chaos. A book of sermon illustrations arranged by topic is a good source for a teacher to use when trying to find points of integration. Dr. Zuck’s book on Paul’s teaching has an appendix that numerous integration points.[12]
The second problem is simply remembering to present the integration. It is all too easy to get so involved in the detail technical points, and the pressure to cover a certain amount of material in a given time, that integration is neglected. To help prevent this the points of integration must be built into the course and lesson plans. The integration should be present at the outset of a topic so that the learner can appreciate and internalize the integration throughout the unit.
The Role of the Holy Spirit
The Holy Spirit plays many significant roles in Christian Education. We will comment on only a few. First, the Holy Spirit must work in the learner to make him both willing and able to learn. This is especially critical when the learner is hearing about trusting Christ alone, so that he may receive eternal life. We learn in John’s gospel that the Holy Spirit is the Christian’s guide in all truth.[13]
The Holy Spirit is also at work in the teacher. In his first letter to the Corinthians, Paul distinguished things that are taught by man’s wisdom and those things, which are taught by the Spirit.[14] The Holy Spirit will often speak through the teacher to the learner in way that are unknown to the teacher. This writer has been surprised on occasion to find that what he thought was a mistake on his part has been used by the Holy Spirit in the life of a student.
The Holy Spirit is also involved in Christian Education by setting up circumstances that will instruct the learner. The learner may gain the point with out other human intervention. However, most of the time the Holy Spirit will have human teacher close by the learner to guide the learner.
God, through the Holy Spirit is ultimately in control of all things. He can intervene in work of the learner, the teacher, and in any part of the instructional setting to cause His will to be accomplished. The fact that God is all sovereign in the universe does not mean that he has predetermined all of a person’s willful choices. Sovereignty does not imply determinism. Man’s free will is no threat to God. One of God’s purposes for man in this life is to train his will to become conformed to God’s way to doing things. That training implies that man is free to makes choices, some of which may not be the best. Through these poor choices, man learns to make better choices. It is through this process that one comes closer to full maturity in Christ.
The Place of Secular Education
In an ideal world, all education would be Christian Education. But such is not the case. What should be the relationship between Christian and secular educators? Should a learner ever place himself under a secular educator? Should a parent send a child to a secular or state school? The answer to the first question is that it should be a relationship of mutual respect. The Christian should never waver from the Christian worldview, but at the same time he should not demean or reticule those who have not yet come to an understanding of truth of God in Jesus Christ.
There may be time when a learner will be well served to attend a secular school and sit under skeptical teachers. Some times the reason may be that no one can be found who teachers a particular subject from a Christian world view. There is also an advantage to be had if life for having been forced to deal with unbelievers. In dealing with them, we can be trained to work them as Christ and Paul worked with the unbelievers in their day. When a person attends secular education, he would be well advised to have a strong Christian mentor at his side. The learner can use the mentor as a sounding board for what he has heard and what he is being asked to believe. This is an essential growth step and no one should be consider fully mature in Christ until he has learned these lessons.
Home schooling and Christian schools are flourishing in America today. Parents want to protect their children from atheistic influences and from the harmful social and physical environment often found it public schools. But is this wise over the long term? As noted above a person needs to have learned how to survive in a secular school at some point in life. When is the right time? This writer had to learn these lessons in public elementary and secondary schools. The experience was not pleasant, but it is not for one moment regretted. It would seem wise, as a general rule; to have the learner exposed to secular educators when he has the best Christian support available to him. For many, this may well be during their years in secondary schools. There is always going to be risk.
Conclusion
At this point in a progress towards a philosophy of Christian Education, we can postulate a working goal and definition of Christian Education.
A Working Goal of Christian Education
The goal of Christian Education is to bring every person to full maturity in Christ. The operative terms of this definition need to be examined. First, it is a goal. Full maturity in Christ is not the necessary end result of a Christian Education. The individual must ultimately choose by an act of their individual will go allow themselves to be brought to maturity in Christ. We can not force them to do it. It is the result of the work of the Holy Spirit within the learner. The second term, Christian Education, will be discussed in the next section.
The goal of Christian Education relates to every person. This means those who are believers and those who are not. The first step in bringing unbelievers to full maturity in Christ will be clearly presenting them with the Gospel and calling for an affirmative response. Their response to this lesson is a work of the Holy Spirit. A teacher can not fault himself if the learner does not respond; assuming the message was clearly given. But even while waiting for waiting for this response, the teacher can continue to expose the learner to other truth from the perspective of a Christian worldview. The learner may also learn many biblical and theological facts, and even become convinced of them before he trusts Christ alone for his salvation. When that learner does respond to the Gospel, he will be born into God’s family “half grown-up.” Therefore, the goal of Christian Education is to work with both believers and non-believers regardless of age or any other factor.
Full maturity in Christ is the final operative phrase. This expression is take from Ephesians 4:13 and the surrounding context. There are several other ways to express this concept. 2 Corinthians 3:18 expresses it as being transformed into the image of the Lord, that is Jesus Christ. Colossians 1:28 refers to it as being “complete in Christ.” The wording from the Ephesians has been chosen for this goal statement since it has the fullest context.
The concept here is that the learner’s character, or manner of life is to be such that a person could easily mistake the learner as Jesus Himself. It is interesting to note that when we think of Jesus we seldom focus on His excellence in the cognitive domain but rather in the affective domain. It is not so much what Jesus knew, but how He lived that amazes us. So when we work to bring a learner to full maturity in Christ, we must be heavily involved in working on affective domain objectives. Knowledge of facts and methods is important. However, the ultimate aim or Christian Education is the development of the character of the learner.
This may sound like an impractical, not life related, goal for Christian Education. However, the opposite it true. Character is expressed in actions. A person with proper character will be able to do things, help others, understand things, and live a happy and productive life.
Another way to state the goal of Christian Education is that the goal of Christian Education is to restore individual people to the image of God man had before the Fall. That is fully intelligent and yet ever learning, fully emotional and yet finding love, fully willful and yet wholly obedient.
A Working Definition of Christian Education
At the outset, let us reject certain notions. First, Christian Education is not a simply a loving, learner centered, Christian doing educational tasks with a learner. That might be called “teaching Christianly.” Second, Christian Education is not just teaching from a Christian worldview. A teacher might proclaim all truth as God’s truth and yet do it in such a way as to even cause rebellion on the part of the learner, against the God who truth is so robustly proclaimed. Finally Christian Education is not exclusive to the teaching of biblical and theological topics. Christian Education can have any truth, righteous value or moral as its content.
So, what is Christian Education? Christian Education is the work of a Christian teacher with a learner, in which the intentional purpose of bringing that learner to full maturity in Christ. That is a simple statement, but its ramifications are manifold. It has been the intention of this paper to explorer some of those ramifications. This definition was derived from those ramifications. One can go back through those points and see how they amplify this statement.
Christian Education springs from the real life of the learner, who is assisted by a loving and caring teacher, who helps the learner become all that he become as a bearer of the image of God.
Appendix
As an illustration of the practical out working of a life and learner centered approach to Christian Education the following general processes for course development and a generalize lesson plan are included.
Course/Unit Development Sequence
Lesson
Process
1) Gain the attention of the learner
2) Objective(s) buy in
a) Establish need to know (often anecdotal)
b) Clear statement of objective(s)
c) Explain method to be used
3) Input
a) Review previous knowledge
b) Point to useful sources of information
c) Give guidance for using sources
d) Present unique material
e) Summarize
4) Modeling (demonstration)
5) Guided Practice
5) Evaluate and cycle back if needed
7) Show the wider scope of application
8) Independent practice in various areas of application
9) Evaluate and cycle back if needed
10) Affirmation of mastery (Praise the leaner on his accomplishment.)
Annotated Bibliography
Bloom, Benjamin S. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain. New York: Longman, 1956
This book remains the standard for setting knowledge based educational objectives.
Chadwick, Ronald. Teaching and Learning: An Integrated Approach to Christian Education. Old Tappan, NJ, Fleming H Revell, 1982.
Chadwick attempts to build a practical implementation of Gaebelein’s integration.
Fritz, Dorothy Bertolet. Ways of Teaching. Philadelphia, The Westminster Press, 1965
A excellent short book on learner centered teaching. Must reading for any Christian educator.
Gaebelein, Frank E. The Pattern of God’s Truth. Winona Lake, IN: BMH Books, n. d.
This is the classical statement on integrating a Christian worldview with any other subject. There is an inherent philosophy of education expressed in this book, but it is not drawn out in specific statements and terms. This book is largely a transcription of the Griffith Thomas lectures at Dallas Theological Seminary in 1952.
Gaebelein, Frank E. “Towards A Christian Philosophy of Education,” Grace Journal, 3 no. 3 (Fall, 1962).
This issue of the Grace Journal is devoted to a transcription of Gaebelein’s Bauman lectures at Grace Seminary for that year. They are shorter and clearer then The Pattern of God’s Truth and might be considered a replacement for it.
Gangel, Kenneth O. and Warren S. Benson. Christian Education: Its History and Philosophy. Chicago, Moody Press, 1983.
This textbook is weighted more on the side of the history of Christian Education then on the development of its philosophy.
Greenleaf, Robert K. Servant Leadership: a Journey into The Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness. New York: Paulist Press, 1977.
Written from a secular business perspective this book show that the best way to lead and direct people is to serve them. The implications for education are manifold.
Gregory, Milton S. The Seven Laws of Teaching. Revised edition. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1980
A classic on teaching. A philosophy of education can be drawn from his descriptions of the seven elements of teaching. This book was originally written for Sunday School teachers and then revised by regents of the University of Illinois to apply to education in general. The revised form still shows how to teach “Christianly”.
Habermas, Ronald T. “An examination of Teaching Paradigms.” Christian Education Journal vol. x no. 3 : 47-54.
Habermas argues for dialogical approach to education and develops a “Johari Window” to show the relationships of several dialogical approaches. In these, he displays a wholesome view of learner/teacher interaction.
Hersey, Paul. Situational Leadership. New York: Warner Books, 1985.
This book has served as the key text at IBM management schools for a number of years. Its thesis is that a manager must apply different leadership styles based on the competencies of each employee. The same may be said of teaching styles and methods
Hyman, Ronald T. Strategic Questioning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979.
An excellent book on the use of questions in teaching. It has a section at the end on teaching strategies and the use of questions in each of his three strategies, presentation, enabling or facilitating, and exemplifying or modeling.
Kienel, Paul A., Ollie E. Gibbs and Sharon R. Berry. Philosophy of Christian School Education. Colorado Springs, Association of Christian Schools International, 1995.
This is the textbook on the Philosophy of Christian Education written and approved by ACSI. It is written for an undergraduate audience but with a few supplements, it could serve as a textbook at the master’s level. While the focus of the text is on Christian elementary and secondary school, what is expressed in this book fits all of Christian Education, even to the post graduate level.
Krathwohl, David R. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook 2: Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co., 1964.
While not a widely quoted as Bloom’s work on the cognitive domain, this book is the standard guide for setting affective domain objectives.
Laurie, Simon Somerville. John Amos Comenius, Bishop of the Moravians. New York, Lenox Hill, Reprint of 1972.
This book is a good summary of Comenius’ works and life. It is a fair and well-balanced treatment.
LeBar, Lois E. Education That Is Christian. Colorado Springs: Chariot Victor Publishing, 1989.
Dr. LeBar builds a philosophy of Christian Education built upon the analogies of Comenius, and by looking at examples of education in Scripture.
McCombs, Barbara L. and Jo Sue Whisler. The Learner-Centered Classroom and School: Strategies for Increasing Student Motivation and Achievement. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1997.
An excellent book. The rating scales are a easy to administer and score. It is a well-organized book and worthy of very careful consideration.
Smith, Richard B. The Teacher’s Book of Affective Instruction: A competency Based Approach. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1987
This book takes a very behavoristic approach to affective domain instruction. It is limited in that its scope is largely restricted to affections regarding learning in a traditional classroom. The numerous sets of rules given in the book, with some modification, are useful.
Tom, Alan R. Teaching as a Moral Craft. New York: Longman, 1984.
An excellent examination of the student teacher relationship even if one does not agree totally with the author’s conclusions.
Wilhoit, Jim. Christian Education and the Search for Meaning. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1991.
An excellent book Wilhoit’s section on the work of the Holy Spirit is particularly helpful.
Zuck, Roy B. Teaching as Paul Taught. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998.
This book studies Paul’s teaching ministry with encyclopedic rigor. It has many useful tables showing patterns in Paul teaching, and his use of various teaching methods.
Zuck, Roy B. The Holy Spirit in Your Teaching. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1983.
Even this revised edition of Zuck’s 1963 original work does not have the rigor of his Teaching as Paul Taught. In this book, the Holy Spirit is often viewed as an external force that works on a teaching situation rather then an internal force working within the teacher and learner.